UNREGULATED SAND HARVESTING IS THREAT TO OUR RIVERS AND WATER CATCHMENTS

 

Kenya water availability has worsened due to effects of climate change, rising population pressure and destruction of wetlands and catchments. Kenya, with total area of 582,646KM², water mass occupies on 1.9 % or 11230KM² while 80% of total area is arid and semi-arid implying that on 114283KM² is available for productive rainfed agriculture. However, there is large potential of agriculture in the arid and semi-arid areas subject to investment in irrigation, water harvesting and water storage. ASAL areas water sources are rivers, farm ponds, boreholes, dams and sand dams.  River water per capita has been in decline due to anthropogenic activities leading to increased vulnerability of farming communities along riparian areas

Sand harvestings is the world’s largest mining endeavor, responsible for 85% of mineral extraction. However, its least regulated, most corrupt, and environmentally destructive. In Kenya, booming construction industry continues to pile pressure on arable land, riparian resource, and infrastructure. Sand contribution to construction industry remains all times high as trucks and lorries loaded with sand are always visible from rural areas towards urban areas. These heavy automobiles have resulted to destruction of road networks especially feeder roads within rural areas as they access the sand mines.

Rivers provide source of livelihood for communities living adjacent and far off distances through different water channeling methods. Such communities carry out agriculture related activities whilst taking care of the rivers for sustainability. Kenya has good river network some stretching from high potential mountainous regions to drier lowlands. As they flow along, these rivers offer sources of livelihood while upholding scenic environment. Sand harvesting continues to pose one of greatest threat to rivers and riparian ecosystem. Sand acts as safe aquifer of water flowing beneath the rivers, sand harvesting destroys these aquifers, loss of aquatic ecosystem and decline in water quality.

Riverbed sand harvesting remains most single destructive activity to river ecosystem. As the sand is being scooped, the river continues to widen its bank leading to accelerated soil erosion and in return reducing arable land. Due to its role as water aquifer, as the sand reduces so the water reduces and eventually by the time the sand is completely depleted so is the water. Pollution associated with sand harvesting has continually posed diseases both to human, livestock, and aquatic ecosystem. On-farm sand harvesting on the other hand continues to deplete the fertile topsoil leading to reduced fertility and productivity. 

Weak governance structures have resulted to rampant illegal and uncontrolled sand harvesting.  Irresponsible and unsustainable sand harvesting has caused environmental destruction and devastated scenery.  Communities living in sand harvesting prone areas have borne the blunt. Mostly controlled by cartels and machete wielding goons, the vice has taken root in rivers adjacent to major towns and highways. Loss of lives, distraction of properties and injuries have been witnessed as communities protect their source of livelihoods. National Sand Harvesting guideline (2007) did provide elaborate sand harvesting procedure; however, its enforcement remains weakest link in conservation efforts.

Poverty and unemployment have remained as key drivers of the vice, Unable to anchor living due to effects of climate change and diminishing natural resource base, individuals living adjacent to rivers have sought refuge in sand harvesting fueled by weak implementation of National Sand harvesting guidelines. Loading, transportation and offloading of sand have offered the much-needed employment opportunities especially to the youth. School enrolment, retention and performance have adversely been affected because some of learners have been involved in the sand business. 

Water is life, any endeavor which threatens its availability deserves condemnation from all fronts. Communities living along the river banks have the primary responsibility of safeguarding riparian ecosystem. Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) have continually advocated for responsible, legal, and regulated sand harvesting, such efforts ought to be lauded and supported by all actors. Governments, both National and County levels have mandate to legislate and enforce laws which safeguard our rivers. The synergy of all actors remain will curb illegal and unregulated sand harvesting and thereby restore the glory of our rivers.

                                       

                                      

THE PRINCIPLES OF WATER HARVESTING IN CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE FOR ARID AND SEMI ARID AREAS

 RETENTION DITCHES

                  

Retention ditches are large ditches, designed to catch and retain all incoming runoff and hold it until it infiltrated into the ground. They are sometimes also called infiltration ditches. In semi-arid areas retention ditches are commonly used for trapping rainwater and for growing crops that have high water requirements, such as bananas. These crops can be planted in the ditch and thereby get increased supply of moisture. The design of retention ditches is usually determined by trial and error. Often the ditch is about 0.3-0.6 m deep and 0.5-1 m wide. In very stable soils it is possible to make the sides nearly vertical, but in most cases the top width of the ditch needs to be wider than the bottom width. The spacing between the ditches varies according to slope. On flat land the ditches are usually spaced at 20 m and have close ends so that all rainwater is trapped. On sloping land the spacing is between 10-15m and the ditches might have open ends so that excess water can exit. Retention ditches can also be made for the purpose of harvesting water from roads or tracks. The location of such ditches will be specific to the site. When constructing the ditches, the soil is thrown to the lower side to form an embankment that prevents soil from falling back in. In order to stabilize the structure grass can be planted on top of the embankment.

  CONDITIONS FOR RETENTION DITCH

Retention ditches are particularly beneficial in semi-arid areas where lack of soil moisture is a problem. They should be constructed on flat or gentle sloping land and soils should be permeable, deep and stable. Retention ditches are not suitable on shallow soils or in areas prone to landslides.

CONTOUR FARMING

Contour farming means that field activities such as ploughing, furrowing and planting are carried out along contours, and not up and down the slope. The purpose is to prevent surface runoff down slope and encourage infiltration of water into the soil. Structures and plants are established along the contour lines following the configuration on the ground. Contour farming may involve construction of soil traps, bench terraces or bunds, or the establishment of hedgerows. The first step in contour farming is to determine a contour guide line. All subsequent water conservation measures are related to the contour guidelines. Contour ploughing ensures that rainfall and runoff are spread evenly over a field by making furrows parallel to the contours

If you don’t plough along the contour, water will run down the furrows and erode soils when it rains Small dams made of earth can be made at regular intervals in the furrows, to trap rainwater and prevent it from flowing along the contour; these are known as tied ridges

CONDITIONS

 Contour ploughing is successful on slopes with a gradient of less than 10%. On steeper slopes contour ploughing should be combines with other measures, such as terracing or strip cropping. The fields should have an even slope, since on very irregular slopes it is too time-

consuming to follow the contours when ploughing

CONTOUR FURROWS

Contour furrows are, small earthen banks, with a furrow on the higher side which collects runoff from the catchment area between the ridges. The catchment area is left uncultivated and clear of vegetation to maximize runoff. Crops can be planted on the sides of the furrow and on the ridges. Plants with high water requirements, such as beans and peas are usually planted on the higher side of the furrow, and cereal crops such as maize and millet are usually planted on the ridges The distance between the ridges varies between 1m and 2 m depending on the slope gradient, the size of the catchment area desired and available rainfall amounts. The drier the area, the larger the distance between the furrows. Small cross–ties in the furrows can be constructed at regular intervals and at right angle to the ridges to prevent flow of runoff and to ensure an evenly distribution of captured water.

CONDITIONS FAVOURABLE FOR FULLOWS

Contour furrows are suitable for areas with annual rainfall amounts of 350-700mm. The topography should be even to facilitate M an even distribution of the water. Contour furrows are most suitable on gentle slopes of about 0.5-3%. Soils should be fairly light. On heavier, more clayed soils they are less effective because of the lower infiltration rate

GRASS STRIPS

Grass strips are a cheap alternative to terracing. Grass is planted in dense strips,  up to a meter wide, alone the contour. These lines create barriers that minimise soil erosion and runoff. Silt builds up in front of the strip, and within time benches are formed. The spacing of the strips depends on the slope of the land. On a gentle sloping land the strips should have a wide spacing (20-30 M). On a steep land the spacing needs to be less (10-15M). Grass strips can be planted along ditches to stabilise them, or on the rises of bench terraces tom prevent erosion.

The grass needs to be trimmed regularly to prevent them from shading and spreading to cropped area between strips. The cut grass can be used as livestock fodder or mulch. Any grass varieties can be used depending on what is locally available. Vetiver grass is a good grass to reduce erosion and resists drought well. Other examples of grasses that can be used are Napier guinea and Guatemala grass. Alternatively a local veld grass can be used.

 PLANTING PITS

Planting pits are the simplest form of water harvesting. They have proved especially successful for growing sorghum and millet in areas with minimal rainfall amounts. Small holes are dug at a spacing of about 1 m. During rainstorms the planting pits catch runoff and concentrate it around the growing plant. Crops are planted in the pits and thereby benefit from the increased moisture availability in the pits.  Compost or manure is placed in the pits before planting to improve soil fertility. It is not necessary to follow the contour when constructing planning pits. Dimensions of the pits vary according to the type of soil in which they are dug. Usually they are between 10-30 cm in diameter and 5-15 cm deep. In the second year, farmers may sow into the existing holes or, if spacing of the pits is large, they may dig new ones in-between the existing ones

CONDITIONS

Planting pits have proven successful in areas with annual rainfall of 200-750 mm. They are particularly useful for rehabilitate barren, crusted soils and clay slopes, where infiltration is limited and tillage is difficult. The slope should be gentle (below 2%) and soils should be fairly deep. Where soils are already shallow, they become even shallower when planting pits are dug. In those cases farmers should not plant in the pit, but in top of the ridge of excavated soils in order to maximize rooting depth.

SEMI-CIRCULAR BUDS

Semi-circular bunds are earth bunds in the shape of a semi-circle with the tip of the bunds on the contour. The size of the bunds varies, from small structures with a radius of 2 m to very large structures with a radius of 30 m. They are often used to harvest water for fruit trees and are especially useful for seedlings. Large structures are used for rangeland rehabilitation and fodder production. The entire enclosed area is planted. When used for tree growing, the runoff water is collected in an infiltration pit, at the lowest point of the bund, where the tree seedlings also are planted. The bunds are laid out in a staggered arrangement so that the water which spills round the ends of the upper hill will be caught by those lower down

CONDITIONS

Semi-circular bunds are suitable on gentle slopes (normally below 2%) in areas with annual rainfall of 200-750 mm. The soils should not be too shallow or saline

 COVER CROPS

Cover crops are usually creeping legumes which cover the ground surface between widely spaced perennial crops such as fruit trees and coffee, or between rows of grain crops such as maize. Often cover crops are combined with mulching. They are grown to protect the soil from erosion and to improve soil fertility. Cover crops protect the soil from splashing raindrops and too much heat from the sun. Most of the plants used as ground cover are legumes, such as different varieties of beans and peas. Pigeon peas and other crops with strong tap roots and longer growing season than maize and beans make good mix and can be used to break hard-pans in semi-arid areas. Over 100 species of cover crops are in use around the world.

For the cover crop to compete with the main crop as little as possible the cover crop should be of a low yielding variety. Cover crops should be planted as soon as possible after tillage to be fully beneficial. This can be done at the same time  as sowing the main crop, or after the main crop has established, to avoid competition at crop nutrition level

 

ROCKS AS AVENUE FOR WATER HARVESTING IN ARID AND SEMI ARID AREAS

 

Water is life since all aspects of life are dependent on water. Water availability is important to any development to take place. Different eco zones have different water availability arising from different climatic conditions. Water safety is determined by the methods of collecting and storage, some pollutants enter water while at collection points while others at storage levels. Water pollution and contamination pose healthy threats to consumers and thus its key to ensure that water purity and safety remains a priority for any water harvesting venture lest water can become a curse in disguise. To achieve water per capita, we should conserve our environment by not cutting down trees, by not cultivating along the river banks and by so doing we will be conserving our water sources.

 WATER HARVESTING USING THE ROCKS

There are different ways of harvesting water. The most common ways of harvesting water in Arid and Semi-arid areas are shallow wells, farm ponds, earth dams, boreholes, surface run off harvesting and roof catchments however rock catchment harvesting is an opportunity which has hardly been explored by different partners.  Many ASAL areas are generally hilly with large rocks creating extensive barriers to viable economic ventures. This makes the rocks to be termed more as curses rather than blessings. However, these rocks can become source of blue gold, source of life, source of water. To harvest water from the rocks, gutter like concrete thin wall is constructed to surround the rock then water is directed in a particular reserve which can be a water tank, water pond, earth dam or agricultural farm. Rain water running off a rock surface is gravitated to a reservoir by long lines of garlands made of rocks mortared on to the rock surface. Once the water has been harvested it is then subjected to different water treatments processes or used in the same state depending on the water use options available for the users. In Kitui south constituency the technology has been in practice and has provided water for domestic and agricultural use for years. They provide both drinking and other household uses for the community for months. Rock catchment have very little maintenance cost, maintenance of rock catchments includes cleaning the catchments and its reservoir before rainy seasons and to replace water taps.

CHALLENGES FACING ROCK CATCHMENTS

Though there is a risk of water evaporation especially in an open water reservoir the benefits are more thus making rock catchments more economically. There is still the risk of contaminations although not much as compared to the other rainwater collecting methods. This is because small rain showers falling on large rocks can provide huge volumes of run-off water which is collected. Water collected through the use of the rocks is less contaminated and if there is any contamination the suns UV rays will sterilize most contaminants. The problem of water evaporation may be curbed by roofing the catchments which makes it more hygienic and cleaner. 

CONCLUSION

Rocks not only provide a means of water harvesting but are also a source of other useful uses in our community. Rocks beatify our environment thus providing beautiful scenery which is a tourist attraction site which is another gain which can be tapped from the rocks. Rocks are used for commercial purposes i.e. rocks are grounded in to small pieces which are used for building purposes. People grind rocks and then sell them so as to earn a living. Rocks should be seen as blessing with variety of unexplored benefits and not curse and obstacle to investments.

 

BLUE ECONOMY; Golden opportunity for Kenyan Coastal Communities and National Domestic product (GDP)

 Sustainable Development goal 14, life below water, focuses on conservation and sustainable use of Oceans, Seas and Marine resources for sustainable development. Oceans cover over 70% of the surface of our planet and play key role in supporting life on earth. Being the most diverse and important ecosystem, they contribute to regional and global elemental cycling and climate regulation through absorbing heat and carbon dioxide (CO²) from the atmosphere.

Conservation and sustainable use of blue economy resource is central 2030 agenda for sustainable development, especially for developing countries. Marine resources are particularly important for coastal communities which make about 37% of world’s population. However, oceans and coastal areas are extremely vulnerable to Environmental degradation, climate change, pollution and overfishing making their conservation and sustainable resources utilization a priority for all actors

Kenya enjoys a marine coastline of 640KM giving a total area of terrestrial waters of 9700KM² which has high growth potential. President Uhuru Kenyatta speech while attending first African blue economy conference in 2018 noted that Kenya’s blue economy could contribute thrice its current share of its gross domestic product. Kenya’s blue economy has potential to contribute three times its present share of gross domestic products thereby creating jobs and bringing prosperity to millions of Kenyans. The sector currently supports estimated two million people directly and indirectly as fishers, traders, processors, input suppliers, merchants of fishing accessories and providers of related services. Despite its low publicity, blue economy plays an important role in job creation, income generation, nutrition and food security.

Kenya’s blue economy sector remains underutilized hence need for government and private sector investment to boost the sectors contribution in Gross Domestic Product. For strengthening of the sector, there is need for regulation, capacity management, infrastructural support and community participation in the co-management of oceanic resources. This would lead to better management of the sector and improved wellbeing of the coastal communities.

The sector is however bedevilled by massive pollution, overexploitation of water resources and their related bio diversities and high seas perennial security threats. Invasive species and oceanic acidification lead to biodiversity loss and compromise human health and food security. Weak legal, policy, regulatory and institutional framework and poorly planned and unregulated coastal development has exacerbated already existing challenges.

Destruction of mangrove forests has exposed both ocean and mainland to agents of environmental degradation. Soil erosion continues to cause pollution to the ocean and acidification of chemical farm inputs due to absence of mangrove barrier previously creating pollution buffer, this has had lethal repercussion to aquatic life. Fish breeding sites mainly mangrove and seagrass destruction has significantly reduced fish population resulting to overfishing to meet fish demands. Tides has become more frequent and severer to human settlements, infrastructure and local communities leading to massive destruction of livelihood sources.

The launch of $100 million Marine Fisheries and Socioeconomic Development project (KEMFSED), a collaboration between Kenya Government and World Bank has placed fisheries sector prominently on national focus. The project is supporting building of sustainable marine fisheries and diversify income streams for coastal communities within Jumuiya ya Pwani counties. The project is empowering the fisher forks and rural coastal communities to take ownership of their resources while creating complementary income to meet their needs.

Kenya’s vision 2030 development agenda identified blue economy as a priority sector thus placing attention and focus for National government, County governments and Non State Actors in exploration of Kenyan oceanic resources. This has created vibrancy albeit minimal by different economic and development actors along coastal communities. Through public participation, awareness creation and positive publicity of blue economy opportunities, communities are coming out to partner and work in harnessing and conserving marine resources to improve their living standards.    

ITS TIME TO ENTRENCH WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP AND DEVELOPMENT POSITIONS

For ages, women have been subjected to back seat when leadership and development issues are being discussed. African culture and traditions have disadvantaged women who have been left to perform demanding yet perceived insignificant chores at household levels. Traditionally women were embedded to cook, take care of children, collect firewood and remain submissive and indecisive to their know-all male counterparts. Similarly, men were believed to be God chosen leaders who were bestowed with sole mandate to make decision regarding property ownership, chiefdom and kingdom selection, property acquaintance and disposal and marital decisions such as number of children to be born, number of wives and wife inheritance matters

 

The perception has created man-made vulnerability to women and girls. Some chores continually subject women to otherwise dangerous yet mandatory environments, while collecting firewood, fetching water, attending livestock women have drowned, attacked by wild animals and militia groups causing emotional and bodily harm. Women have been subjected to lesser economic gainful enterprises in patriarchal societies who perceives women contributions as insignificant.

 

The trend seems to change in unprecedented rate as whole world. Women have taken influential and seat in cornerstone on many development and leadership positions. World Super power United States of America has woman vice president Her Excellence Kamala Harris. While Theresa May and Margaret Thatcher held Britain prime minister position in different times. For sixteen years, Angela Markel led Germany.

 

 Africa is not left behind as Ellen Sirleaf Johnson held the helm of Liberia, a leadership which has saw sanity and rule of law back to the country wounded by civil war. Catherine Samba Panza led Central Africa Republic between 2014 and 2016 while Rose Francine Rangombe led Gabon between June and October 2009. Samia Suluhu Hassan took over from Late H.E Dr Magufuli in Tanzania while Sahle Work Zedwe is the current president for Ethiopia.

 

In Kenya women have made remarkable strides from dark past to limelight both in private sector, public leadership and political position. The appointment of Nyiva Mwendwa to cabinet position in 1995 took male chauvinists by surprise but was the beginning of women presence in leadership positions which is now entrenched in the 2010 constitution. Performance of women in leadership position has proofed that they are equal participant with men.

 

In community development front, women have provided the most needed workforce either freely and below market rates. Family farming which feeds over 70% of world population according to World Rural Forum statistics 2013 is most dependent of women labor who toil to ensure their crops are planted in time, weeded and manure applied and taken care from pest and diseases and harvested. In most patriarchal African societies’ men make the decisions while women implement such decisions, a culture which continues to draw back gains made in gender equality. In pastoral communities, women are left to small livestock while men own large livestock, which bring incomes in terms of labor and sells when they are sold. Decisions to own some property and even income by women remain highly influenced by men and thus low homegrown development initiatives in rural communities

 

In recent past women have clustered themselves in self run and regulated micro finance initiatives which have offered much needed and deserving source of income in rural areas. These initiatives have seen women be able to afford household items such as cooking wear, school uniform for their children and school fees, access to better health and more regular and nutritious meals to their families. Through loans and financials savings from their groups’ (chamas’) women are able to start business and earn income and decent lives.

 

Women play important roles in all aspects of development, due to their closeness to nature, while proving for the families, women have very sound mindset in environmental conservation which has seen many women take lead in rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems.   For any community, be it in developed countries, developing, war torn regions, rural or urban to realize sustainable development, women need to be placed in their right positions as the current trend has proven that they can do what men have done and even in better. Previous closed opportunities for women need to be availed to them so that they can optimize their contribution in nation building.

 

Article by

 

Andrew Muendo Nyamu

Young Africa Leaders Initiative (YALI) fellow 2018

Project Coordinator, Coastal Livelihood and Environment Management

Plan International

Email: nyamu1895@gmail.com